Why Is Beef Industry Sustinable in Georgia
Introduction
Humans have used livestock grazing to adapt to arid landscapes for millennia (Clutton-Brock, 1989), but every bit livestock production has go embedded in a circuitous transnational meat supply concatenation, new strategies are needed to ensure sustainable production into the future. In the The states, about 25,000 cattle ranches are located in the arid and semi-arid Southwest1. These ranches produce ~6% of the cows that provide calves for the US beef manufacture, making Southwestern ranching essential non just to local communities, economies, and landscapes, simply to the nation's overall beef supply, as well (Havstad et al., 2018; USDA-NASS, 2020). However, the fragility of the predominant supply concatenation emanating from the Southwest coupled with increasing heat and drought are threatening the capacity of Southwestern ranchers to produce beef sustainably (Gershunov et al., 2013; Polley et al., 2013; Havstad et al., 2018; McIntosh et al., 2019; Hendrickson, 2020).
Most calves weaned on the cow-dogie ranches of the Southwest are exported to the Ogallala Aquifer regionii for backgrounding, grain finishing, and meat sales (Johnson and Becker, 2009; Buhnerkempe et al., 2013; Blank et al., 2016). The Ogallala Aquifer region as well imports grain from the Upper Midwest3 to see feeding quotas not filled past local feed production (Gottschalk, 2007; Guerrero et al., 2013). Problems in one link of this inter-regional supply concatenation can compromise resilience of the entire chain. Moreover, interventions designed to solve problems in one region impact, and are affected past, ecological and socioeconomic dynamics in connected regions. Therefore, to foster beef production that is truly sustainable – that is, that satisfies dietary demand, protects environmental quality, and ensures economic security and skilful quality of life for producers and order (National Research Council, 2010; Kleinman et al., 2018) – nosotros must understand the performance of beef production in multiple realms and in the multiple regions continued past supply and demand (Liu, 2017).
With these goals in mind, iii strategies prove promise for improving sustainability of beef product originating in the US Southwest and the regions continued to it: heritage cattle genetics, precision ranching, and alternative supply chain options. Hither nosotros summarize the major challenges to the sustainability of Southwest beef production, provide rationale for evaluating these three strategies as ways to address the challenges, and study early results of our multi-disciplinary, multi-year approach to agreement the benefits and drawbacks associated with each strategy (Effigy 1). Our arroyo was funded in 2019 as a 5-yr Coordinated Agricultural Project (CAP) by the United States Department of Agriculture – National Constitute of Food and Agronomics (NIFA-AFRI #2019-69012-29853, www.swbeef.org). Here we report results of the outset year of the "Sustainable Southwest Beef CAP."
Figure ane. The Sustainable Southwest Beef CAP is investigating three strategies with potential to improve sustainability of beef production originating from the American Southwest, using a boundary-spanning approach of education, participatory research, and extension.
Sustainability Challenges for Southwest Beef Production
Sustainability Challenges on Pasture and Ranch Scales
Like to other arid landscapes worldwide, range pastures of the American Southwest tend to be large and heterogeneous. Frequent use of particular locations by cattle can result in perennial grass loss (Bestelmeyer et al., 2018), soil degradation (Nash et al., 2003), and increased dust emissions (Baddock et al., 2011) – all of which diminish cattle weight gains (Holechek, 1992). Manipulating fencing, h2o locations, and timing of use are common approaches to improving livestock distribution in rangelands (Heitschmidt and Taylor, 1991; Owens et al., 1991). These interventions, still, can be price-prohibitive to establish and maintain in arid systems (Hunt et al., 2007).
High input costs coupled with external market place forces contribute to rates of return varying from net losses to simply +3% on annual investment in the ranches of the American Southwest – significantly lower than the six% received by U.s.a. agriculture on the whole (Torell et al., 2001; USDA-ERS, 2016). Looking ahead, these economical stresses are projected to intensify as the Southwest continues to feel higher temperatures, increasing frequency and intensity of heat waves, and more frequent droughts (Gershunov et al., 2013; Briske et al., 2015; USGCRP, 2017). These novel climate exposures are predicted to touch ecosystems and economics through diminished rangeland carrying capacities, increased site vulnerability to soil deposition, compromised regional feed and pasture forage production, and intensified animal oestrus stress (Havstad et al., 2018).
Sustainability Challenges on the Supply Chain Scale
Looking beyond ranch gates, the specialization and concentration of United states beefiness cattle and cattle feed production has greatly increased efficiency in terms of price per unit of product of beef (Dimitri et al., 2005; Capper, 2011); however, information technology has also contributed to a host of ecology, economical, and societal concerns, including compromised environmental quality and quality of life for communities almost concentrated feedlot manure (Casey et al., 2006), as well as vulnerabilities in supply chains. For case, occupancy restrictions in meat processing plants experienced in the spring of 2020 due to COVID-19 have resulted in cattle remaining in feedyards longer, and fewer conventional cuts existence bachelor in supermarkets, affecting the ranches upstream (Pare et al., 2020; Texas A&M, 2020). The lack of typical beef cuts and volume in supermarkets resulted, for many Americans, in expanded involvement in the provenance of beef and local beef products (Atkins, 2020; Emmert, 2020; Nagus, 2020). While it is too early to predict long-term furnishings at the writing of this commodity, it is possible that investment in alternative, local supply chains may ultimately bear on the long-term economic sustainability of conventional grain finishing (Hobbs, 2020).
Strategies Toward Sustainability: New Research and Early Results
Heritage Cattle
The Raramuri Criollo biotype has undergone 500 years of adaptation to the harsh conditions of the Sierra Tarahumara in northern Mexico with minimal genetic influence of improved beef breeds (Estell et al., 2012; Anderson et al., 2015). Based on by research, Raramuri Criollo announced to feel less heat stress on hot summertime days (Nyamuryekung'e et al., 2017) and have been anecdotally observed to forage more on low-quality grasses and shrubs than conventional beef breeds (Anderson et al., 2015). In improver, during seasons when green forage is relatively scarce and patchily distributed, Raramuri Criollo have been constitute to attain greater distribution than conventional cattle types (Peinetti et al., 2011; Spiegal et al., 2019).
To appointment, grass finishing has been the primary selection for Southwestern producers raising Raramuri Criollo, which tin be finished on grass but become passed over at auctions in the conventional production chain due to color and shape non-conformity (Enyinnaya, 2016; Torell et al., in review). Another option is cross-convenance the heritage type with beef breeds used conventionally, thereby maintaining the potential economic and environmental benefits of Raramuri Criollo cows while producing more widely marketable offspring (Martínez-Cordova et al., 2014; Mcintosh et al., 2018).
While grass finishing and grain-finishing cattle with Raramuri Criollo genetics show promise for economic and environmental sustainability, especially nether warmer and drier weather condition, more information is needed before adoption of Raramuri Criollo genetics can exist widely recommended. To fill these information gaps, a long-term breed comparison study was initiated in March 2020 on the New United mexican states State Academy (NMSU) Chihuahuan Desert Rangeland Enquiry Eye (CDRRC) in Las Cruces, New Mexico. Four large pastures were dedicated to the corresponding cow-calf herds – two pastures for a heritage herd, and 2 for a conventional Brangus herd. External inputs and outputs are being quantified to assess differences in ranch total factor productivity (Ramankutty et al., 2018) between herds, and vegetation and soils are being monitoring to assess the ecological furnishings. To understand the processes driving product and ecological outcomes, cattle movements are being monitored in real time (see beneath), and costs and returns are being measured, including supplement intake, percentage calf ingather, and kilograms of dogie weaned.
The feedlot and finishing performance will be compared between the heritage crossbred calves and conventional beefiness calves at inquiry facilities in the Ogallala Aquifer region. Calves for this component of the study are beingness raised on cooperating ranches in southern New Mexico, southeastern California, and southeastern Utah (stars in Figure ane). The first calf crop is scheduled to exist transported to Clayton, New Mexico for wheat pasture backgrounding and eventual finishing at Clayton, New Mexico, and Texas A&Yard Agrilife Research facilities in Bushland, Texas in fall 2020, and repeated the post-obit 2 years. Slaughtered cattle will be subjected to beef quality tests including consumer taste panels at Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas in 2021, 2022, and 2023.
This breed comparing leverages one of 18 coordinated experiments in the Long-Term Agroecosystem Research (LTAR) network Common Experiment, contributing to a national assessment of the benefits and drawbacks of adopting "aspirational" management approaches on farms and ranches nationwide (Spiegal et al., 2018). This experiment is also part of an international network of long term grazing studies comparing the environmental footprint of Criollo vs. improved beef breeds at sites in Mexico and Argentina.
Precision Ranching
Sensor-driven precision farming, already mainstream in intensive animal agronomics systems (Neethirajan, 2017), tin can likewise assist ranchers in the warming and drying American Southwest make rapid decisions to sustain fauna wellness and provender resources. Existent-fourth dimension analysis of shifts in animal movement patterns associated with failing forage, inadequate or faulty water supply, nativity, or predation helps ranchers to intervene speedily, finer providing a blazon of early alert system addressing multiple sustainability problems.
Chiefly, these technologies tin can aid reduce economic and environmental costs of ranching in extensive, barren lands. Based on calculations for the 780-kmtwo USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, wireless sensors indicating water levels in troughs could salvage 388–478 h of driving time and 742–956 gallons of fuel, which translates into $7,800–$10,000 in annual cost savings, 6.half-dozen–viii.5 metric tons of avoided CO2 emissions, and more time for pursuing other endeavors. On the other mitt, investments in the system such as installation, maintenance, and time spent learning to apply the technology can reduce overall cost-effectiveness of adoption.
To investigate the potential of these technologies in extensive barren landscapes, we are developing a precision ranching system able to log, transmit, and analyze beast, atmospheric condition, and water sensor data in existent fourth dimension via a long-range, low power wireless surface area network (LoRa WAN), to be tested at five participating ranches (Effigy ane). Cost inputs and savings from this engineering volition be assessed via enterprise budgets (Torell et al., 2014), and a survey instrument will exist used to determine user perceptions regarding the usefulness of all aspects of system implementation. With this understanding of cost savings and feedback from participating ranchers, a marketplace-set up product should be available inside half dozen years.
During the showtime twelvemonth of the projection, we built a pilot model and are testing it at the NMSU CDRRC, where the long-term breed comparing report was initiated. The GPS collars, watering tank, and rainfall sensors have been collecting data since March 2020 (Supplement ane). Initial testing and scale of components of the precision ranching organization at CDRRC is allowing us to judge its usefulness and is helping our squad identify and carefully document potential challenges of using LoRa WAN on extensive cattle ranches with sparse communication networks. Understanding these technological hurdles will be critically important as we ringlet out the precision ranching system on cooperating commercial ranches in the near futurity.
Supply Chain Options
Amongst concerns about food safety and environmental impacts of beef supply bondage, the market share for alternative beefiness products – natural, certified organic, grass-fed – has been growing in recent decades (Tonsor et al., 2009; Mathews and Johnson, 2013; Food Marketing Found, 2017), and societal involvement in locally-sourced food appears to exist growing quickly during the ongoing COVID-xix pandemic. Thus, ranchers who grass-finish Raramuri Criollo cattle are part of a larger community in the American Southwest that has adopted grass finishing for a multifariousness of reasons (Barnes, 2011).
During the past year of engaging with Southwestern producers who grass finish cattle, we have come to identify two principal approaches: (1) finishing locally on arid ranches, and (ii) exporting weaned calves to the Northern Plainsfour (the "Follow the Green" product system). Much is unknown virtually the rate of adoption of these approaches, their ecological and economic outcomes, or how those outcomes compare with those of grain finishing systems – peculiarly as the Ogallala Aquifer region's backgrounding and feedlot industries face threats of aquifer depletion (McGuire, 2017) and the expanding impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic (Hendrickson, 2020). Therefore, we are working to create a knowledge base for producers, consumers, regional planners, and policy makers involved with Southwest beef production so they tin compare grass finishing vs. grain finishing under various scenarios of change. Our master analytical tools are the Integrated Farm System Model (IFSM; Rotz et al., 2019) and a multi-regional "pericoupling" analysis (Liu, 2017).
The IFSM uses production inputs in the farms and ranches of a given supply concatenation to estimate the environmental and economical outcomes of that supply chain (including free energy use; carbon, phosphorus, and reactive nitrogen footprints; water consumption; product costs; and cyberspace returns). We are using IFSM to compare economical and environmental outcomes in half dozen supply chains: Follow the Green with and without Raramuri Criollo, Grass-Finishing in the Southwest with and without Raramuri Criollo, and Grain-Finishing in the Ogallala Aquifer Region with and without Raramuri Criollo. We are gathering information on inputs from 5 ranchers and two feedyard operators formally participating in projection research, besides as from other producers engaged through the CAP'south extension efforts (see beneath). Ultimately the simulated environmental and economic effects will provide a measure of the long-term sustainability of the six supply chains, so that tradeoffs can be quantified and compared.
All six product systems being simulated in the IFSM originate with calves born on Southwestern ranches. The weaned calves are then exported to other regions (Follow the Light-green, Grain-Finishing), or are held dorsum from those regions (Grass-Finishing in the Southwest). Given these inter-regional connections, we aim to understand how dynamics in one region affect the dynamics of the others, and vice versa. To that stop, we are conducting a "pericoupling" analysis (Liu, 2017) to characterize the socioeconomic and environmental interactions among the regional systems linked via beef production nether both the current system and a plausible nigh-future scenario (da Silva et al., 2019). Using the pericoupling framework, nosotros are addressing the following questions about the connected regions under both the current and futurity scenarios (Tabular array 1):
1. What are the flows of resources among four regions continued through beef production (the Southwest, Ogallala Aquifer region, Upper Midwest, and Northern Plains)?
2. What agents bring along the connections (pericouplings) between the regions?
3. What are the causes of the pericouplings betwixt the regions?
four. What are the major effects of the pericouplings on each region?
Table ane. Preliminary results of a pericoupling analysis to assess linkages of four regions affected by beef production in the American Southwest, under the current system and a plausible near-future scenario.
During the by twelvemonth, nosotros have built our pericoupling database with agro-economical datasets that bridge national, state, and regional levels, as well as results from IFSM simulations, and information from our integrated extension and education activities. Preliminary results are in Tabular array 1.
Boundary-Spanning Approach
We designed the Sustainable Southwest Beefiness CAP to span boundaries between science and decision-making in guild to meliorate actions in both realms (sensu Bednarek et al., 2018). A central colonnade is participatory research: All research is existence conducted at least in part on commercial ranches, with direct involvement of ranch operators. This interest, from study design to execution to information estimation, is ensuring tight linkages between science and real-world challenges and opportunities in Southwestern beefiness production. The purlieus-spanning arroyo was adopted, in part, to ensure a realistic understanding of opportunities for, and barriers to, adoption of the strategies under investigation.
To empathize more nearly the potential for adoption of the strategies nether investigation, during the by twelvemonth, knowledge co-product/extension partners in the Sustainable Southwest Beef CAP – from New Mexico State University, the USDA Southwest Climate Hub, and Texas A&M AgriLife – engaged with producers from the Southwest and the regions pericoupled to the Southwest through beef product. Primal tools have been on-ranch demonstrations, in-person events, podcasts, and surveys. For instance, the project team hosted an event for ~125 ranchers, feedlot operators and others connected to the beef cattle manufacture at the 2020 Southwest Beef Symposium in Amarillo, Texas, where initial rancher perceptions of the three strategies were collected. Cattle producers (northward = 36) from 26 counties across seven states completed the CAP'south "baseline" survey (Elias et al., in review). In response to a question almost which topic of the project would be nigh immediately applicable to their operation, near a quarter indicated that precision ranching engineering science is nigh applicable, another quarter selected range finishing in the Southwest and other supply concatenation options, and another quarter chose the overall integrated approach of the CAP as nigh applicable. X percent of respondents indicated that Spanish/heritage brood cattle would be near applicative. We will compare baseline data with surveys at the end of the 5-twelvemonth project to notice changes in perceptions about the strategies.
In partnership with the knowledge co-production/extension and research teams, the Asombro Institute for Science Education in New United mexican states and the BlueSTEM Agri-Learning Center in Oklahoma have adult lessons and instructor trainings to increase scientific discipline literacy, advance noesis virtually difficult controlling engineering science in agriculture, and garner feedback about the strategies under investigation from the agricultural professionals of tomorrow. The integration of Thousand-12 activities into the other components of the CAP emphasizes collaboration, interdisciplinary thinking, and strong communication skills (Bestelmeyer et al., 2015).
In the first year of the projection, the teaching team developed a 1-h classroom lesson and a field trip action to innovate lower elementary students to Raramuri Criollo (https://asombro.org/wp-content/uploads/Criollo.pdf). Lessons were based on the Sustainable Southwest Beef CAP project and aligned with the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), making them relevant to teachers in New United mexican states and nineteen other states using these standards. Lessons were developed and pilot tested with more than than 200 2nd and 3rd form students in the fall 2020 semester.
School closings in the spring 2020 semester halted classroom lessons, field trips, and teacher trainings. The education team therefore pivoted toward developing an interactive learning experience that could exist done by students learning from home. "Solving the Beefiness" (https://asombro.org/solvingthebeef/) is a game that encourages players in competing teams to develop creative solutions for sustainable beef production and marketing given a set of scenarios and constraints. Information technology is congenital effectually engineering design principles from NGSS. Though Solving the Beef was developed as an adaptation to social distancing, information technology can also exist played in a traditional classroom or after-school setting. The game will exist expanded by adding additional scenarios equally results from the Southwest Beef CAP are published. Moreover, the game will allow the education team to collect ideas from students – the producers and consumers of tomorrow – to feed back to the research component of the project.
Assessing and Communicating Tradeoffs
In improver to peer-reviewed and popular press articles, an interactive repository is beingness built to business firm and communicate the integrated knowledge developed by the Sustainable Southwest Beef CAP. The "Western Beef Noesis Organization" is beingness designed to assist decision-making around beef product and consumption, with geographically-specific data for producers about the potential benefits and drawbacks of adopting the strategies nether investigation, and for consumers seeking locally-tailored guidance on how they tin can purchase beef that aligns with their stated values. Nosotros have also adult short factsheets for use by regional planners and other policy makers, as they evaluate incentives for adoption of the strategies and empathise the inter-regional effects of culling beef supply chains (https://southwestbeef.org/factsheets).
Ultimately, our goal is to utilize new, integrated knowledge to accelerate sustainability of U.s.a. beef production. Adoption of animal genetics suited to a hotter, drier climate, precision technologies that provide affordable and timely information for ranch management, and culling marketing options all have potential to improve economic, ecology, and societal outcomes. Even so, when making significant changes in an agronomical system, full consideration of the regions pericoupled through production is necessary to achieve desired outcomes. With our boundary-spanning approach, nosotros aim to illuminate these inter-regional connections, and identify viable pathways to ameliorate sustainability for beef producers, beef consumers, and the rangelands cherished past Americans nationwide.
Author Contributions
All authors contributed equally to the ideas in this commodity. SS was pb writer with contributions from, and editing by, AFC, BB, JS, RE, DA, CR, and MMu. MMc created artwork for Figure i.
Funding
The Sustainable Southwest Beefiness Coordinated Agronomical Projection was funded by the USDA National Found of Food and Agriculture, Agronomics and Food Research Initiative'southward Sustainable Agricultural Systems (SAS) program. Grant #2019-69012-29853. This research was likewise a contribution from the Long-Term Agroecosystem Research (LTAR) network. LTAR is supported by the United States Department of Agronomics.
Conflict of Involvement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absenteeism of whatsoever commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
Many cheers to Dr. Jack Liu for sharing his expertise for our pericoupling analysis. Thanks also to Dr. David Anderson of Texas A&M for providing information on interstate cattle movements into Texas and inspected by the Texas Creature Health Commission, as discussed in the Supplementary Information.
Supplementary Textile
The Supplementary Material for this article can exist found online at: https://world wide web.frontiersin.org/articles/x.3389/fsufs.2020.00114/full#supplementary-material
Footnotes
i. ^We define the US Southwest as u.s.a. of New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, California (Effigy 1).
2. ^Nosotros define the Ogallala Aquifer region every bit parts of Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, and S Dakota (Figure 1).
3. ^We define the Upper Midwest as the "Corn Belt" which covers Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, eastern Nebraska, and eastern Kansas.
4. ^Nosotros ascertain the Northern Plains as North Dakota, Southward Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, and Nebraska.
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Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2020.00114/full
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